Literacy Skills and Practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Education Skills and Practices - Essay Example This paper centers around my artistic practices, how they dropped by and the innovative and social viewpoints. At the point when I was around three and years old, my folks used to peruse to me. Along these lines I had the option to remember a portion of the narratives they read to me. PCs and TV assumed a noteworthy job in showing me how to peruse and compose through instructive projects. This assisted with forming me as an author and lay a firm proficiency establishment. I got my first PC when I was in fifth grade. At first, I utilized it to play music and web based games yet later I utilized it to impart by means of email and web based life. Word processors proved to be useful when structuring text archives. From that point forward, the PC has been part and passel of my perusing and creative cycle. The new advances have changed my proficiency rehearses, both deliberately and accidentally. They have manufactured my essential proficiency aptitudes, for example, phonics, cognizance, s pelling, jargon, composing, and phonemic mindfulness. At first, the meaning of proficiency was situated in the print world, which was a universe of print media, a two-dimensional universe of pictures and print. This definition doesn't suit the better approaches for proficiency rehearses like data search over numerous media, the partaking visual gatherings and virtual situations, messages, making individual online journals, wikis or sites. As a peruser, I am not kept to grasping and disentangling the print word. I am ready to writer messages, study and react to writings, peruse and comprehend data from various viewpoints. No arrangement of rules or guidelines are set to direct my online cooperation and screen what I focus on. As a peruser, I am relied upon to comprehend complex plans which incorporate pop-ups, pictures, hyperlinks, and symbols. My instructors have guided and demonstrated me truly, empowering me to basically integrate and break down thoughts; decipher messages; distin guish crowd and reason and be associated with intelligent exercises. Innovation has given numerous chances to us as students to work together with each other; henceforth proficiency isn't just about composition yet additionally a mix of thoughts with others. As an understudy, I have had the option to connect with different understudies over the globe. This incorporates different individuals from various social foundations and nationalities. This movement has consistently been gone before by careful exploration on how various societies react and respond to various data. As understudies, we have actually occupied with rehearses away from our study halls. A few understudies run and own web journals and, consequently, discuss normally with different friends. By perusing distinctive educative web journals and articles, I have figured out how to outfit tremendous information on a wide assortment of issues. As of now, students are called upon as sure and recognizing clients of web crawlers and sites, person to person communication members, complex data labyrinth scrutinizers, basic and key wayfarers.

Weezer [Blue Album] by Weezer free essay sample

Common Grammatical Errors Should You Use i.e. or e.g.

Common Grammatical Errors Should You Use i.e. or e.g. Do you know whether to use i.e. or e.g. in a sentence? What’s the difference? Unless you have studied Latin or the intricacies of the English language, you might be surprised to learn that the abbreviations i.e. and e.g. mean different things.  Many people use them interchangeably â€" and they are not, in fact, interchangeable. The Meaning of i.e. and e.g. e.g. means “for example” and comes from the Latin exempli gratia; whereas i.e. means “that is” and comes from the Latin id est. Grammar Girl has some great tricks to remember these definitions, as recounted in her article, How to Remember the Difference Between I.e. and E.g. She suggests thinking of “egg” for e.g., as in “eggsample” or just remembering that it starts with an e for “example.” For i.e. she suggests thinking “in essence” or just remembering that it starts with i for “in other words.” Examples of When to Use i.e. or e.g. i.e. e.g. There are 7 colors in the rainbow, i.e., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. (Use i.e. when you are stating a complete list that is equivalent to what comes before the i.e.) There are 7 colors in the rainbow, e.g., red, orange and yellow. (Use e.g. when you are giving examples of the thing that comes before the e.g.) Sweets are her Achilles’ heel, i.e., her weak spot. (Use i.e. when you are defining the first part of the sentence in another way.) Sweets are her Achilles’ heel, e.g., she eats a pint of ice cream if it’s in front of her. (Use e.g. when you are giving an example of the first part of the sentence.) The soldier went AWOL, i.e., Absent Without Official Leave. (Use i.e. when you are explaining the definition.) Acronyms are words where each letter stands for a word, e.g., AWOL which means “Absent Without Official Leave.” (Use e.g. when giving an example.) Should i.e. or e.g. Be Italicized? There are a few things that grammar gurus do not agree upon.  One is whether i.e. and e.g. need to be italicized, as most Latin abbreviations are.  Most agree, however, that because these abbreviations are so common there is no need to italicize them. [Note:  I am italicizing i.e. and e.g. in sentences such as this as an alternative to using quotation marks; in my examples they are not italicized.] Should i.e. or e.g. Be Capitalized? There is disagreement as well as to whether i.e. and e.g. can ever be capitalized, i.e., I.e. or E.g.  I would capitalize them if they started a sentence, but not everyone says that’s acceptable. Should There Be a Comma After the Second Period in i.e. and e.g.? Once again, there is no agreement on this point.  Most sources but not all recommend a comma; in British English a comma is less often used. Technicalities aside, I recommend that you take a moment to think the next time you write an e.g. or i.e. in a document. You’re more likely to say what you mean. Are you working on a writing project and have questions about how to use i.e. vs. e.g.?  I’m happy to answer. For more grammar tips from The Essay Expert, sign up for my Grammar Writing Tips e-list.

The No Child Left Behind Act Of 2001 - 1452 Words

I. Introduction As stated by the U.S Department of Education the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is the most recent iteration of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), the major federal law authorizing federal spending on programs to support K-12 schooling. The act requires states to implement statewide accountability systems covering all public schools and students (Clarke 2003). These systems must be based on challenging state A former teacher, President Johnson believed that equal access to education was vital to a child’s ability to lead a productive life. This piece of legislation constituted the most important educational component of the â€Å"War on Poverty† launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Through a special source of funding (Title I), the law allocated large resources to meet the needs of educationally deprived children, especially through compensatory programs for the poor. As Alyson Klein states, a writer for Education Week, the law†™s original goal, which remains today, was to improve educational equity for students from lower income families by providing federal funds to school districts serving poor students. School districts serving lower income students often receive less state and local funding than those serving more affluent children. The purpose of the NCLB is to ensure that all children in the United States receive a high-quality education and to close the achievement gap that exists between children whoShow MoreRelatedThe No Child Left Behind Act Of 20011403 Words   |  6 Pagesnumber of interesting topics in this Political Science 2 class session of the Fall 2016 semester. A few that stood out to me, personally, were the topics of laissez-faire economics, separate-but-equal issues, and the viewpoints of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. From the tenth edition of the course book We the People, Texas Ed. by Benjamin Ginsberg and Unit 2 of the lecture; a policy developed by the efforts of the l ate philosopher and economist, Adam Smith, laissez-faire economics essentiallyRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Of 20011019 Words   |  5 PagesNo Child Left Behind- Is It Working Veolia White English 1302 Professor: Sandy Jordan February 27, 2015 The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, signed into law by President Bush on Jan 8, 2002, was a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education act, which included Title 1, the government’s flagship aid program for disadvantage students. Many educators were excited about NCLB when it was first signed into law. Test scores were improving. The test scores of minority students have improvedRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act of 2001617 Words   |  3 PagesThe No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was drafted and passed to inject a rigid standard-based education system in the United States. It was signed into law by President Bush, and represents a gross, unwarranted, and unsubstantiated encroachment of the federal government into education. According to the State of New Jersey Department of Education (2010), the No Child Left Behind Act contains the most sweeping changes to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) since it was enacted in 1965Read MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act 2001880 Words   |  4 PagesThe Intent of the No Child Left Behind Act 2001 The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act aim was to ensure all children receive fair and equal access to a high-quality education. It aims was to establish common standards that bridge the achievement gaps between students with disabilities, disadvantaged — high-and-low performing students and ethnic minority, and more advantaged students— non-minority students in reading, math, and science by the year 2014 (Angervil, 2015). It had a strong emphasis on statesRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act Of 20012046 Words   |  9 PagesThe no Child left behind act of 2001 has had a major impact on students, teachers, and our culture as a whole. When the NCLB act was passed in Congress and signed into law by President Bush, it was so that we would have increased accountability for schools and teachers, improving test scores, and help schools get the support and backing of the federal government so that no more children would slip through the cracks of the educational system. The quality of education was a major issue in 2001 whichRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act Of 2001893 Words   |  4 PagesAssessment has drawn much attention, especially since the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESES). It is not that assessment is new to education but that the stakes of assessment has risen to a new level. It is apparent that testing is now viewed in a much different way by the public, schools and all stakeholders of schools than in the past. Over time, testing has developed roles of providing a gradeRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act Of 2001 ( Nclb )1227 Words   |  5 PagesThe No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is a United States Act of Congress that is a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which included Title I, the government s flagship aid program for disadvantaged students. No Child Left behind was enacted with the in tent to become a government aid program for disadvantaged students, and eventually raise the general education standards for the United States. This act was created with the idea to â€Å"close the achievement gap withRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind Act Of 2001 ( Nclb )1007 Words   |  5 Pagesmost controversial law enacted by President George W. Bush is the No Child Left behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This is a landmark educational reform designed to improve student achievement and drastically change the culture of American’s schools. In fact, President Bush describes the law as the â€Å"cornerstone of his administration.† Because children are our future, President Bush wanted to ensure our neediest children were not left behind. This paper will discuss pros, cons, and impact on students, teachersRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Of 2001 ( Esea )1101 Words   |  5 PagesEducation Act of 1965 (ESEA) as an extension of his â€Å"War on Poverty† plan. ESEA fu nded primary and secondary education, encouraged equal access to schooling, established lofty standards and accountability - all done with the intention of closing the achievement gap between students, especially the gap between those from impoverished backgrounds and those from the middle-class. Authorized again under President George W. Bush, the ESEA was given a new title, the â€Å"No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)Read More The No Child Left Behind act of 2001 Essay1973 Words   |  8 PagesThe No Child Left Behind act of 2001 Control of the public education system has been left to the State for most of the country’s history, it was not until the 1950’s that the federal government played a role in categorical programs, but the national government refrained from involvement in academics until the 90’s. Three days after taking up his position in office, George Bush announced his plan for the No Child Left Behind act (NCLB) which was a consolidated reform of the 1962 Elementary and Secondary

Investigation Of A Security Clearance For A Position...

I.INTRODUCTION Background investigations are an essential aspect of the vetting process for both employees and potential employees of the US Federal, State, and Local governments and private sector companies that provide support, services and products to these government entities. These investigations are conducted to determine the suitability of the subject of the investigation to hold a security clearance for a position impacting our national security. Many of the individuals hired by the aforementioned organizations are placed in positions which require a security clearance. Based on the type of clearance, the person has access to information that is crucial to implementation of the missions of US government entities and private†¦show more content†¦II. INSIDER THREATS The purpose of US Federal Government background investigations is to determine if individuals are deemed acceptable for employment within the US government, and more importantly, prevent individuals of malafied intent from gaining access to a position impacting the US national security. Properly executed background investigations can greatly diminish the possibility of a potential insider threat obtaining access to classified information, which can cause the US great harm and the US government great embarrassment. Prior to the founding of the United States of America, the insider threat has hindered the security of a nation. It is written that the outward destruction of a country results from the inward turmoil of its government. Numerous historical accounts of internal conflicts endangering the welfare of countries are present in the history books of most countries. In most instances, the conflict occurred within the governmental structure of the nation. Regarding internal threats, the US government is not immune from this imminent danger. Constantly, there are numerous threat to US government operations that are undetected. Although the US government Most recently, the breach of security of former National Security Agency (NSA) employee, Edward Snowden, and the ongoing saga of events surrounding his dubious departure from his home country have permeated the media of countries around the world. The Snowden case is â€Å"the latest in theShow MoreRelatedThe Government s Background Investiga tion Essay945 Words   |  4 PagesThe US government’s background investigation process for individuals seeking employment with US Federal, State, and Local government agencies and private sector organizations is an important part of US homeland security. Through a thorough investigation of an individual’s biographical, residential, employment, education, military, medical, financial and legal histories, etc., information regarding an applicant’s background is obtained and a report of investigation (ROI) is prepared and submittedRead MoreThe Unhcr13403 Words   |  54 Pagesresults challenges of protection of people. Who can these people and the world count on in this kind of situation? Our very first assumption was the United Nations should be a key actor but which agency, what will be possible actions and will they actually be able to help those people are our primary inquiries. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was noticed in our mind as they are the UN refugee agency. UNHCR has played important roles in many world situations since 1951 and seemsRead MoreCredit Appraisal20118 Words   |  81 Pagescredit worthiness of loan applicants. 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Gone are the daysRead MoreNokias Human Resources System144007 Words   |  577 PagesForm 20-F 2010 Nokia Form 20-F 2010 As filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on March 11, 2011. UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION Washington, D.C. 20549 FORM 20 ­F ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934 For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2010 Commission file number 1 ­13202 Nokia Corporation (Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter) Republic of Finland (Jurisdiction of incorporation) KeilalahdentieRead MoreAssignment on Hr Promotion Transfer14234 Words   |  57 Pagesenterprise and ambition; minimizes discontent and unrest; attracts capable individuals; necessitates logical training for advancement and forms an effective reward for loyalty and cooperation, long service etc.† Promotion is defined as giving higher position to the employee, which carries high status more responsibilities and higher status. Promotion means advancement of employee in terms of pay and status also improvement in working conditions. The upward assignment of an individual in an organizationRead MoreAnz Bank142091 Words   |  569 Pagesare variously described as: †ANZ†, â€Å"Group†, â€Å"ANZ Group†, â€Å"the Bank†, â€Å"us†, â€Å"we† or â€Å"our†. ANZ ANNUAL REPORT 2014 ANZ IS EXECUTING A FOCUSED STRATEGY TO BUILD THE BEST CONNECTED, MOST RESPECTED BANK ACROSS THE ASIA PACIFIC REGION WHO WE ARE AND HOW WE OPERATE ANZ’s history of expansion and growth stretches over 175 years. We have a strong franchise in Retail, Commercial and Institutional banking in our home markets of Australia and New  Zealand and we have been operating in Asia PacificRead MoreI Love Reading Essay69689 Words   |  279 PagesGovernment of India b i n n o v a i c u l t u r w u s i n e s f E N T R E P R E N E UR S H I P m n a d c a t i o n u o n P l o y m e n t l t h e v i r o n m e n t n a n c e A Study by National Knowledge Commission Entrepreneurship in India National Knowledge Commission 2008  ©National Knowledge Commission, 2008 This report has been prepared by Amlanjyoti Goswami, Namita Dalmia and Megha Pradhan with support and guidance from Dr. Ashok Kolaskar and Mr. Sunil Bahri. TableRead MoreAnnual Report Rolls-Royce78484 Words   |  314 PagesTeAmwork And Technology Rolls-Royce Group plc Annual report 2010 Trusted to deliver excellence BUSIneSS reVIew 01 Introduction and highlights 02 Chairman’s statement 04 Chief Executive’s review 08 Our consistent strategy 20 Market outlook 22 Key performance indicators 26 Principal risks and uncertainties 28 Review of operations 28 civil aerospace 30 defence aerospace 32 marine 34 energy 36 engineering and technology 38 operations 40 Services 42 Sustainability 48 Finance Director’s review

Schizotypal Personality Disorder Free Essays

Psyc101 Psychological Disorders Schizotypal Personality Disorder The cluster A disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, is not to be confused with Schizophrenia. It is on the milder end of the spectrum but can still have extreme effects on one’s life and relationships. The disorder, which affects nearly 3% of the population, can be defined by several different behaviors and has many symptoms. We will write a custom essay sample on Schizotypal Personality Disorder or any similar topic only for you Order Now Unlike schizophrenia, the people with this disorder can acknowledge their behavior but still may not want or seek treatment. A person with schizotypal personality disorder will have trouble with interpersonal relationships and can display what is described as odd or unusual behavior. They are not comfortable in social settings or surrounded by groups of unknown people. Someone with this disorder will tend to be a loner especially if there are no immediate family members around. Due to a lack of social skills or feelings of inadequacy they may never marry nor have children because they cannot relate to others in a normal way. Often characterized by odd thinking and beliefs, paranoid thoughts, distorted perception and a lack of close friends, there are other symptoms as well. One may be prone to delusions or hallucinations, be superstitious or believe they have ESP (extrasensory perception). Persons may dress in abnormal ways such as mismatched clothes or dirty clothes and may not even attend to their personal hygiene. Individuals with this disorder feel so disconnected and distant from the rest of society that some of these symptoms arise as way for them to have something to cling to in hopes of being able related to something or someone. Therapy, including one on one, couple or group, and medication can be used to help someone with schizotypal personality disorder to function. Some of the therapies would require the person to interact and â€Å"bond† with the therapist in order to learn social skills such as trust. A therapist may also try to teach someone with the disorder how to correctly respond to people with actions or expressions and can try to alter their paranoid ideas to improve relational connections. Medications cannot treat the disorder, however, certain ones can help alter moods or treat symptoms of anxiety and depression. Individuals with a personality disorder such as Schizotypal may have odd or eccentric behaviors and isolate themselves from others. Many symptoms of this disorder cannot be treated with drugs and with urging people may not seek therapeutic forms of treatment. In conclusion, a person with this disorder can remain lonely and distant with little interaction with society and will never experience the joy and happiness of a â€Å"normal† life. Works Cited Mayo Clinic Staff. â€Å"Schixotypal Personality Disorder. † MayoClinic. com. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. October 8, 2010. Web. October 8, 2012. http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/schizotypa-personality-disorder/DS00830/ Minddisorders. com. Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. n. d. Web. October 8, 2012. http://www. minddisorders. com/Py-Z/Schizotypal-personality-disorder. html How to cite Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Essay examples

Schizotypal Personality Disorder Free Essays

Psyc101 Psychological Disorders Schizotypal Personality Disorder The cluster A disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, is not to be confused with Schizophrenia. It is on the milder end of the spectrum but can still have extreme effects on one’s life and relationships. The disorder, which affects nearly 3% of the population, can be defined by several different behaviors and has many symptoms. We will write a custom essay sample on Schizotypal Personality Disorder or any similar topic only for you Order Now Unlike schizophrenia, the people with this disorder can acknowledge their behavior but still may not want or seek treatment. A person with schizotypal personality disorder will have trouble with interpersonal relationships and can display what is described as odd or unusual behavior. They are not comfortable in social settings or surrounded by groups of unknown people. Someone with this disorder will tend to be a loner especially if there are no immediate family members around. Due to a lack of social skills or feelings of inadequacy they may never marry nor have children because they cannot relate to others in a normal way. Often characterized by odd thinking and beliefs, paranoid thoughts, distorted perception and a lack of close friends, there are other symptoms as well. One may be prone to delusions or hallucinations, be superstitious or believe they have ESP (extrasensory perception). Persons may dress in abnormal ways such as mismatched clothes or dirty clothes and may not even attend to their personal hygiene. Individuals with this disorder feel so disconnected and distant from the rest of society that some of these symptoms arise as way for them to have something to cling to in hopes of being able related to something or someone. Therapy, including one on one, couple or group, and medication can be used to help someone with schizotypal personality disorder to function. Some of the therapies would require the person to interact and â€Å"bond† with the therapist in order to learn social skills such as trust. A therapist may also try to teach someone with the disorder how to correctly respond to people with actions or expressions and can try to alter their paranoid ideas to improve relational connections. Medications cannot treat the disorder, however, certain ones can help alter moods or treat symptoms of anxiety and depression. Individuals with a personality disorder such as Schizotypal may have odd or eccentric behaviors and isolate themselves from others. Many symptoms of this disorder cannot be treated with drugs and with urging people may not seek therapeutic forms of treatment. In conclusion, a person with this disorder can remain lonely and distant with little interaction with society and will never experience the joy and happiness of a â€Å"normal† life. Works Cited Mayo Clinic Staff. â€Å"Schixotypal Personality Disorder. † MayoClinic. com. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. October 8, 2010. Web. October 8, 2012. http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/schizotypa-personality-disorder/DS00830/ Minddisorders. com. Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. n. d. Web. October 8, 2012. http://www. minddisorders. com/Py-Z/Schizotypal-personality-disorder. html How to cite Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Essay examples

Contract to Legitimacy Theory in Accountingâ€Myassignmenrhelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Contract To Legitimacy Theory In Accounting? Answer: Introduction Social contract is basically an age old theory which states that an individuals ethical and/or political responsibilities are based upon an agreement among them to form a society in which they reside. Thus it can be construed that as per the social contract theory, moral and ethical codes are the principles, all reasonable individual would agree to and also make it a part of their lives, but only if they would be able to trust on other people also to follow the same. The said theory can be useful in examining queries related to the business ethics. It is an invisible arrangement which mentions that one should not contravene the moral rules and guidelines. There are three mainstream theories of business ethics, stockholder theory which states that an organization has no moral responsibility towards the society but to earn maximum gains by performing the business operations in an ethical manner, social contract theory states that business enterprises work under an unwritten agreement w ith the society as a whole wherein the community gives permission to the enterprise to conduct a business activity under such circumstances which is the most beneficiary for the society and third is the stakeholder theory which states that one of the ethical responsibilities of an enterprise is that they are obligated to all those who have a stake in the final results of the activities undertaken by the company which comprises of staff members, the society as well as the surroundings and the stockholders (Thompson 2016). The report focuses upon explaining the importance and application of social contract to the Legitimacy Theory in accounting. It discusses what does the said theory connote and how is it related to the accounting field. Further the report also analysis the relationship between social contract and accounting. Legitimacy Theory In Accounting The increasing body of literature diverges its focus towards the corporate social accounting and reporting problems. The new economic, social and environmental confronts order to the enterprises and the government enterprises as well to pay heed and respect to the rules, regulations, morals and standards and to willingly release societal and environmental data so as to investigate their adherence. Thus the Legitimacy Theory conducts the role of an acceptable aspect for the revelation of the environmental data. Not to ignore, the global financial crisis occurred in 2008 which led to the shakiness in the financial markets as well as the economy as a whole, demands from the companies to re-consider their moral systems and to emphasise the significance of authenticity. The association of the corporeal financial resources with the ethereal legitimacy resources is crucial for formation of a fresh vision for all organizations (Burlea Popa 2013). However various economists and scholars have criticised the said theory. Legitimacy is a comprehensive awareness about the activities conducted by an entity and whether the same is acceptable, proper and apt within certain socially constructed system of customs, standards, philosophies and descriptions. Thus it can be rightly said that a legitimacy theory has the main part of amplifying the performance of the businesses in employing and developing deliberate and chosen social and ecological revelation of information so as to accomplish their social contract that facilitates the acknowledgment of their objectives and the endurance in an unstable scenario. The said theory has a very deep rooted past which is related to the management theory, institutional theory and stakeholder theory. Advantageously speaking, the sustainability of the legitimacy theory is dependent upon the management tradition that links the old methods and ways with the current modern ethical stances. Therefore, to put the same in simple words, one can dictate that legality counter measu res the fact that entities change their reporting procedures and strategies, and so as to point out that they are operating in a way which is in accordance to the repositioning in societys social precedence and prospects. Legitimacy is very important to follow while accounting for the transactions and various other financial data which is relevant for the society as if the same is not maintained and moulded as per personal needs, then the same may lead to breaking of the invisible social contract terms and conditions and also in some cases leading to an economic downturn. Thus social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting is now a must so as to ensure that the accounting is done keeping in mind not only staying within the lawful fencing but also considering he impact it would have on the society as a whole. Legitimacy Not One Theory But Two Legitimacy theory has dual theories not one. First is the macro theory of legitimation which is named as Institutional Legitimacy Theory which speaks about the entire structure of an organization and how the same is accepted by the society. With regards accounting perspective, the present condition of a business environment which comprises of the capitalist structure as well is generally considered to be a motionless circumstance inside which the investigation is situated. The second is the Strategic Legitimacy Theory wherein the enterprise desires for permissions from the various communities within a society. Accounting for legitimacy is difficult, however the same can be done from the fact as to by being legitimate, how an entity is being able to attract such resources which are compulsory for the endurance (Tilling, 2004). Relevance Of Social Contract To Legitimacy Theory In Accounting The importance of social contract to the legitimacy theory in accounting cannot be under estimated, especially after the collapse of Lehman Brothers in 2008. The organizations are now required to become more transparent while accounting for the various transactions. Further to this, the entities are also bound by an ethical duty to report in their accounting statements data about the environment in which they operate. However, it would be incorrect to consider the same as inclusion of more regulation but a way of reporting about the trueness and fairness of the accounts. If the entities do not comply with the terms and conditions of the social contract then they would not be accepted by the society and their survival will be at stake. The collapse of Lehman Brothers which was basically due to presentation of a rosy picture of accounting statements, thus misleading the investors and harming the society as a whole, bought the said theory in vogue wherein the social contract should be a dhered to while accounting the transactions (Abeysekera,2003). By the term legitimacy we mean legal or something that is within the law and the theory on the same is basically concentrated between the business entity and the society. The consumers expect the organisations to work in a legitimate manner and at the same time the corporations are expected to participate in resolving various social and environmental problems (ODonovan, 2000). The legitimacy theory posits that the legality of an organization to work within a society is dependent upon an unspoken societal treaty flanked by the business entity and the society. Legitimacy theory pre-empts that the business houses perform in an ethical way within the social boundaries. The various business entities make all efforts to institute equivalence amongst the social norms and beliefs which are associated with or implied by their actions and the rules and regulations with regards satisfactory performance within the larger social system to which they belong. Steady with the above mentioned view point, the accounting of the assets is a legitimating establishment and provides a way through which the social values are related with the financial and fiscal activities (Lindgreen et.al. 2008) . As early as the 80s, the legitimacy theory has been applied by the researchers who basically concentrate upon examination of the social stances, specifically pointing towards environmental accounting practice. For example the steel companies were examined longitudinally wherein certain variations were discovered with regards the corporate social reporting. Whereas one research confirmed with regards the legality account, the other failed to disclose the disparities in the admissions at BHP (Faisal et.al. 2004). As stated, the relevance cannot be over-emphasized, but however the organizations in todays scenario recognize the requirements of the society with regards the information about how the company is complying with the social contract and transmitting the said information in a tactical manner so that it is confirmed that the same is in line to the desires of the society. Thus this enables in formulation of an image via communication of the information to the society. The said stand point is held up by legitimacy theory as well. However, such a disclosure is not mandatory until and unless the relevance of the same is questioned by any segment of the community with regards the accuracy of the results. Therefore it can be interpreted as, if the societys perception of a business entity is at par with the way the organization desires to be perceived, there exists to be no differentiation to the legitimacy gap (Collins 2012). Thus it does not call for any motivation for disclosures or demandi ng to legalise any such results or aims of the business entity. The fact that legitimacy theory offers the researchers and the social order as a whole, a method of essentially unloading corporate confessions. But the accepting and learning of the hypothesis must become more difficult and complicated, depicting on improvements both within the accounting literature and further. It is only ten when the entire latent of legitimacy theory for probing a huge number of disclosures be realised in totality (Patten, 1991). Some of the industries wherein the relevance of the social contract in legitimacy theory in accounting can be emphasized are the asbestos industry since it has to undergo a disestablishment phase, brothels since they have become more legal as per the Australian scenario and the forest industry since it is always on the verge of defending legitimacy. However the list does not end here. The data that would be disseminated will help to give a more clearer picture and also more detailed information so as to inform decision making by the vari ous stakeholders (Wambi 2015). Thus in this context it can be rightly connoted that the society has a much larger and a prominent role to play over looking at how the resources are being utilised. The social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting gave rise to the corporate sustainability reporting (CSR). It is basically the duty of all corporates towards the society in which they dwell. It is an commitment of the businessmen to ensure that such policies and procedures are being followed which are as per the requirements of the objectives and the aims of the society. It however covers financial, legitimate, principled as well as flexible expectations that the society has from the various organizations at a particular point of time. CSR is crude terms is how an organizations conducts its business processes so as to ensure that the end result is optimistic on the society (Suchman, 1995). Further to this, the companies are required to notify and pen down about the quality of the management which comprises of individuals as well as procedures and also the type of and quantity of their implications on the community which are a part of distinguishing areas. Thus the legitimacy t heory enables the companies to feel obliged while taking into account the interest of the various sections of the society i.e. customers, employees, government as well as ecological conditions in various parts of their operations (Jupe, 2005). The existence of a social contract, makes the business entities realise that they have dual responsibility of earning profits as well as functioning ethically within the social boundaries. The financial responsibility and duty of the management of a business organisation entails that society demands the business to manufacture and deal in such goods and services as is asked by the customers and earn a profit which is basically an incentive for the business competence and efficacy. The legitimacy theory basically calls for ensuring that the business is conducted and accounted for as per the rules of the game which protects the society as a whole. Therefore for the same, the society demands from the entities to perform their financial goals with in the guidelines put forward by the societys legitimate system (Toukabri et.al. 2014). The legitimacy theory in accounting has also pointed out disclosing not only the financial data but also the non-financial ones as many a times, the latter also has a great impact on the health f the company as well as the industry in which the company dwells. As was very evident in the case of Lehman Brothers in 2008 wherein the financial statements failed to disclose the relevant data about the firm such as the usage of Repo 105 in accounting and that too in a manipulated manner. Thus the social contract has laid emphasis upon the relevance of the non-financial information also which is also a part of the accounting of the firm, even if no specific value can be attached to the same. The relevance of such a disclosure of non-financial data is that it helps to bridge the gap of the information irregularity that lies amongst the management and main stakeholders of the firm and also to help the investors to understand the major areas of performances and get a broader picture of corpora te recital that takes into consideration the society at large as well. Social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting ensures the future of a company, as no company can survive for long if it does not adhere to the norms laid down by the society and acts in an illegal and unlawful manner. Further, if legitimacy theory in accounting is followed with regards to the fact that a company is a part of the society only and hence cannot function alone, then it would enable better positioning of the firm and good employees would be attracted to work with the firm which help in turn help reduce the employee turnover ratio and also ensure that it is being able to attract and employee better individuals from the society who would help them achieve better financial results in future (Addison, 2011). CSR disclosures in a lawful manner is important in accounting as it also helps the firm to attract more capital and also enhance the value of the shareholders investors. Lastly since legitimacy takes into the society and not just the stakeholders or the investors, legitimacy based accounting will cater to such circumstances wherein the firms have been a party to such scrupulous practices which has had an impending implication on the society and also contravened the contract terms as well. Since the legitimacy theory concentrates upon the view point of the society in which it dwells, the management of an organization are to mandatorily account and disclose such data which would alter the thoughts and opinion of the outside users towards the entity (Williams Adams,2014). Application Of Social Contract To Legitimacy Theory In Accounting Social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting is basically a way to ensure that the entities report about their sustainability in the corporate world. Sustainability reporting in the field of accounting which covers up both financial as well as non-financial metrics for the benefit of the society in which a firm resides in a legitimate way is important in the present scenario wherein the economies are in a turbulent situation. The application of the social contract varies from country to country and is also industry specific. The jurisdictional setting of the various countries are different and the said setting also has a very critical implication over the formulations of various corporate reporting variables (Wilmshurst Frost, 2000). As has been stated in the above paragraphs, the legitimacy theory is dependent upon a concept that the legality of a business organization to work within the societal fencing is dependent upon an inherent social contract between the business houses and the society. Thus its rightful application will only help to derive the required results and the same is decided basis the expectations of the society from the industries and the individual firms as well. Sensitivity, as is said to be right word, linked to the various industries is an unswerving argument with legitimacy theory (Omran Ramdhony, 2015). Considering the legitimacy theory, it is understood that the kind of industry can have a very crucial impact on the opinionated visibility and constrain admissions in order to reduce the pressure and condemnation from society. The application is said to have been successful when the value generating systems of an organization which look for legality and the social systems from which they seek legality from are congruent. The legitimacy theory is not fixed or monotonous but a continuous process via which the expected legitimacy of an entity is emerging in a non-stop manner and is reconstituted via the social surroundings. The various strategies with the help of which the corporations try to create, increment or maintain supposed legitimacy in accounting are the most crucial factors in defining the behavioural patterns of the corporate and the corporate communication as well with regards the society and the surroundings as well (Milne, and Patten, 2002). A firm accounts for its transactions both financial and non-financial in the financial statements simply because their exists a contract with the outside world which is invisible. Due to existence of such a contract, the demand for authenticity in the accounting comes into picture. Thus the application of the social contract to legitimacy theory has a direct relationship to the context as well as the audience (Deegan 2014).Todays scenario calls for accountability of an organization to the various groups of the society who normally have inconsistent views and expectations. The legitimacy of an organization is due to the social stances. It can be viewed as a discursive product which is gained and continued through social interactions. But for some few notables studies, the social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting perspective has been mainly concentrated with the spontaneous character of the managerial revelations. The organisations have a significant role to play in maintaining a social dialogue with the society in which it works as well but at the same time ensure that the legitimacy theory in accounting is also applied while adhering to the terms of the social contract. The accounting which is transparent and does not hide any material transactions or events from the society is said to have fulfilled one of the many conditions of the contract it has entered into with the society. It has commented that frequently, all are presented with reasonable explanations with regards the motivations given to the management with regards disclosures to be made, but no attention is given with regards the method by which such disclosures are to be which would or would not entail to greater accounting transparency towards the non-capital provider stakeholder groups or can rightly be said to the society who may not have contributed to the capital of the company. Thus how would the application of social contra ct to legitimacy theory in accounting can be made is yet another question unanswered. The application of triple bottom line, way of reporting helps to provide data about the economic, social as well as environmental presentation of an organisation. The said application helps to develop a relationship of the organization with the concept of sustainable development. Many business houses and the government entities have already enrolled to the said concept. (Lindblom, 1994) By social contract of an organization with the society, one means that the organisations should ensure to apply its operational activities in such a manner which is legal as well as construes to the societal norms. The business organizations have off lately altered the way they conduct their business and it is not profit centric only but also discusses about the moral responsibility they have towards the society, thus apply the same every time a new business operation is being undertaken by analysing the impact it w ould have on the society and whether the same is permitted by law (Bebbington et.al.2014). Whenever the firm notices that its legitimacy is being endangered, then it may resort towards adaptation of various tactics such as adaption of such results, aims and methods of operation which are in line to legitimacy, communicate to change and modify the definition of social legitimacy so that it conforms with the present practices adopted by the entity and make an attempt by communicating in clear terms, to become acknowledged with symbols and principles which imply legitimacy (Archel et.al. 2009). Disclosures in the annual reports are basically a strategically approach adopted to bring in legitimacy or maintain the existing one within the business entity. The media is one of the major driving factors which helps in forming the public figure of the organizations and thus disclosures in the annual reports are ways and means of getting back the lost confidence and support from the society due to the negative publicity by media (Hoque, 2006). Even though is a necessity to do maintain social relationship and ensure the same is accounted for in a legitimate manner as per the legitimacy theory, thus if a corporate makes disclosures about the legality of its transactions and its operations then the same is being done effectively since it is mainly construed to be for the continued existence and endurance or profitability stances instead of an expression towards better accountability (Ashforth, Gibbs, 1990). There are various proofs which show that various disclosures are a legitimation tool and not merely an accountability mechanism. However, the application of social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting has certain gaps to cater to. First and foremost is the measurement i.e. it is very difficult to measure and account for in value terms the social contract being adhered to, secondly, the kind of disclosures which would entail to maintenance of social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting is also questionable su ch as the methods to be used and what social groups really bestow to legitimacy, thirdly, the disclosure strategies adopted are basically guided by self interest due to which some activities undertaken by the organizations can be categorised as institutionalised instead of being driven by legitimation strategies and lastly those researchers who apply the legitimacy theory in accounting, do not take into account the activities that are concentrated at legalising the broader social system (Owen, 2008). Thus it can be narrated that the gap that exists between the application of social contract to legitimate theory in accounting lies to the fact that even though the disclosures are being made so as to educate or manoeuvre the society in a style with an intention to provide legality to the organization, the researchers failed to consider whether these disclosures will have a deeper implication with regards the efforts to legitimise specific economic, social and political systems in vogue that basically challenge and destabilise the interest of specific stakeholders such as the employees (Guthrie, and Parker, 1989). Numerous CSR studies have engaged the structure of legitimacy theory so as to inspect the expected motivations for the corporate social and environmental disclosures. For example, the incremental environment related disclosures by the petroleum companies after the Alaskan oil spill can be understood as a proof in support of t he legitimate theory (Hybels, 1995). Theories To Explain Environmental Reporting And Disclosures The legitimacy theory is considered to be one amongst the various social theories which is sustained by the notion of social contract. The same been documented as an effectual descriptive tool with regards the intention of environmental accounting by the business entities. By the said theory of legitimacy, it caters to discuss about the fact that the business entities concentrate upon legalising themselves and their activities with regards the operations as well as accountability of the transactions by working within the boundaries drawn by the society and the contract that they have with the society which is although unsigned and invisible but has a great implication (Lanis, Richardson, 2012). However it is very important to understand that the social norms is not constant and it will keep on altering depending upon the requirements, for example the reporting requirements ad usage of any accounting standard has become more stringent after the aftermath of Lehman in 2008, since it h appened due to illegal usage of Repo 105 which was a pronounced standard by the USA. Thus they failed to cater to the social contract and their responsibility towards the society and the numerous investors due to which the society suffered drastically leading to loss of many lives as well. Thus the social norms which keep o changing as per circumstances, will also lead to modification of the reporting policies and thus in this scenario will entail towards revealing data about the environment so as to conform to the social perceptions (Dunfee, 2006). It is very important to note that the legitimacy theory is not the only one theory that exists. Recommendations The legitimacy of the organizations and the way they disclose their corporate transactions in the annual reports and the websites can be utilised as a stratagem to uphold and reinstate the legality of an institute which is very crucial for the survival in todays scenario. The legitimacy which is accredited to a business entity can alter over a period of time and these corporate revelations can be used as a form of instituting, preserving and repairing any kind of legitimacy. The corporate reports published by the organizations can not be looked upon as neutral and unbiased. They are a combination of the interchange between the company and the surroundings or the society to which it is catering to. By ensuring that the disclosures are being made voluntarily without any undue influence or any stated rules and regulations, the strategy would help the firm to manipulate its relationships with the society as a whole. Working in isolation will not help an organization to reach up high in t he corporate ladder as well as be able to live for a long time (Berdufi Dushi, 2015). The boundaries and the rules are not stationary and hence the entities should be receptive to the changes occurring. It is highly recommended to ensure that the data is disclosed in conformity with the accounting standards as well as the social norms so as to institute the business authenticity. Organizations who still work only towards maximising profits although legitimately, yet have to face survival issues as the desires and demands of the public has changed and demands the corporates to even take care of the human, environmental as well as societal issues. Conclusion Thus on a concluding note it can be said that legitimacy theory basically concentrates upon highlighting the idea of a social contract which exists between the business entity and the society as a whole in which it is participating. The survival and the existence of an organization is said to be endangered if it fails to perform its activities and accounts for the same in confirmation to the societal norms and in a legitimate manner. An organization is said to have adhered to the legitimacy theory if the corporates value system is harmonizing to the value system of the broader society to which the corporate belongs. Thus it can be construed that the legitimacy theory is understood as a conception that the business entities disclose and reveal information so as to legitimise their behaviour in front of the society. Thus such disclosures in the annual statements basically points towards image building. The fact that the society plays a vital role in the survival of a company, the fact that they demand for legitimating the actions undertaken by these organizations can also not be denied. Ultimately the relevance of social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting cannot be ignored as it helps the to reveal and discuss about their sustainable actions so as to legalise their activities. The disclosures are finally made so as to cater tot he negativity entailed by the media as well as the criticisms posed by the society at large. The accounting of these activities also helps to provide a more detailed data to the various stakeholders who desire to be aware of the risk from the firms actions. Further accounting does not only ensure that which is recorded in the financials but also takes into consideration the social as well as environmental implications. Thus after various disasters both in the financial sector as well as the environmental perspective, the meaning of accounting has br oadened and is not limited to only financial disclosures but also accounting of other factors as well thus making the corporates realise and reminding them an invisible contract that they have signed with the society at large. Globalisation has in its wake brought in the demand for the said legitimacy theory else the social contract was being avoided and the organisations were not accounting in a transparent manner. References: Abeysekera, I. (2003). Accounting for intellectual assets and intellectual liabilities, Journal of Human Resource Costing Accounting. 7(3). 7-14 Addison,P. (2011). The Social Contract. Pearson Education Inc: Wesley Archel, P., Husillos, J., Larrinaga, C. and Spence, C. (2009). Social disclosure, legitimacy theory and the role of the state. Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal, 22(8), 1284 1307. Ashforth, B. E. Gibbs, B. W. (1990). The double-edge of organizational legitimation. Organization Science, 1, 177194. Burlea,A.S., Popa,I. (2013). Legitimacy Theory. Encyclopaedia of Corporate Social responsibility. Pp. 1579-1584. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/E-ZONE/Downloads/Legitimacy_Theory_ECSR.pdf Berdufi,N. Dushi, D. (2015). Social Contract and the Governments Legitimacy. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 6(6). 392-398. Retrieved from https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/viewFile/8033/7698 Bebbington,J. Unerman,J. ODwyer, B. (2014). Sustainability Accounting and Accountability, 2nd Edition. Routledge: New York Collins,R. (2012). Corporate Legitimacy and Environmental Reporting Deegan and Unermans (2006) contentions. Retrieved from https://richardcollinsaccountingblog.wordpress.com/2012/04/28/corporate-legitimacy-and-environmental-reporting-deegan-and-unermans-2006-contentions-3/ Deegan,C. (2014). Financial Accounting Theory. Chapter 8: Unregulated corporate reporting decisions: considerations of systems-oriented theories. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/saadman672/deegan-fat4e-pptch08-51413501 Dunfee, T. (2006). A critical perspective of integrative social contracts theory: Recurring criticisms and next generation research topics. Journal of Business Ethics, 68, 303-328. Dowling, J. Pfeffer, J. (1975). Organizational legitimacy: social values and organizational behavior. Pacific Sociological Review, 18, 122136. Faisal,F. Tower,G. Rusmin,R. (2012). Legitimatising Corporate Sustainability reporting Throughout the World. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal. 6(2). 19-34. Retrieved from https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1335context=aabfj Guthrie, J., and Parker, L. D. (1989), Corporate social reporting: A rebuttal of legitimacy theory. Accounting and Business Research. 9 (76), 343- 352. Hybels, R.C. (1995). On legitimacy, legitimation, and organizations: A critical review and integrative theoretical model. Academy of Management Journal, Best conference proceedings, 241-245. Hoque,Z. (2006). Methodological Issues in Accounting Research- Theories, methods and issues. Spiramus Press Ltd: London. Jupe,R.E. (2005). Disclosures in Corporate Environmental Reports : A Test of Legitimacy Theory. Retrieved from https://kar.kent.ac.uk/24451/1/91_Web_Version.pdf Lanis,R. Richardson, G. (2012). Corporate social responsibility and tax aggressiveness a test of legitimacy theory. Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal. 26(1). Pp. 75-100. Lindblom, C.K. (1994). The implications of organizational legitimacy for corporate social performance and disclosures. Paper presented at the Critical Perspectives on Accounting Conference, New York, NY Lindgreen, A., Swaen, V., and Johnston, W. (2008). Corporate social responsibility: an empirical investigation of US organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 46 (3), 23-29. Milne, M.J. and Patten, D. (2002). Securing organisational legitimacy: an experimental decision case examining the impact of environmental disclosures, Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal, 15(3), 372-405. Omran,M.A. Ramdhony,D. (2015). Theoretical Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure : A Critical Review. International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting. 5(2). Pp. 38-55. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/E-ZONE/Downloads/Theoretical%20Perspectives%20on%20CSR%20(IJAFR%20-%20Dr.%20Omran)%20(1).pdf ODonovan,G. (2000). Legitimacy Theory As An Explanation For Corporate Environmental Disclosures. Retrieved from https://vuir.vu.edu.au/15372/1/O%27Donovan_2000compressed.pdf Owen, D. (2008), Chronicles of Wasted Time? A Personal Reflection on the Current State of, and Future Prospects for Social and Environmental Accounting Research, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 21(2), 240-267. Patten, D.M (1991). Exposure, legitimacy, and social disclosure. Journal of Accounting Public Policy, 10(4). 297-308. Suchman, M. (1995). Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches, Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 57l-610. Toukabri, M., Ben Jema, O., and Jilani, F. (2014). Corporate social disclosure: Explanatory theories and conceptual framework. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 3(2), 208-225. Thompson,S. (2016). Social Contract Theories in Business. Retrieved from https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/social-contract-theories-business-17357.html Tilling,M.V. (2004). Refinements to Legitimacy Theory in Social and Environmental Accounting. Retrieved from https://www.flinders.edu.au/sabs/business-files/research/papers/2004/04-6.pdf Wambi,I. (2015). The relevance of Thomas Hobbes Theory of Social contract to the modern world. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/E-ZONE/Downloads/Relevance_of_the_Social_Contract_Theory.pdf Wilmshurst, T. D. and Frost, G. R. (2000), Corporate environmental reporting: a test of legitimacy theory. Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal. 13(1). 10-26. Williams,S., Adams, C.A. (2014). Moral Accounting? Employee disclosures from a stakeholder accountability perspective. Retrieved from https://drcaroladams.net/moral-accounting-employee-disclosures-from-a-stakeholder-accountability-perspective/

Market Trends of Luxury Cars

Introduction The background of the present luxury car is extremely expensive, frequently the custom-bodied luxury sporting cars of 1920s to 1930s. Normally made by Bugatti, Alfa Romeo, Delahaye, Lincoln, Delage, Cadillac, and Mercedes-Benz among others, these highly stylish status cars were preferred by aristocrats, film stars, gangsters and playboys for projecting elegant and profligate images.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Market Trends of Luxury Cars specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Two such examples were Mercedes-Benz SSK and Duesenberg Model SJ, very expensive and fast automobiles which avoided both complete sports performance and pure luxury in support of unique mixture of style, power and craftsmanship which combined to create cars that resulted to status symbols (Knowles 5). This idea of luxury has evolved in diverse shapes since the start of civilisation. Its function was only vital in ancient eastern and western empires like it is in present societies; with obvious variances amongst the social classes in past civilisations, the use of luxury was restricted to prestigious classes and whatever the less privileged could not have was considered to be luxury (Knowles 5). In economic terms, a luxury good’s demand raise exceeds proportional adjustment in revenue, plus it contrast with necessity good, which demand does not connect to income (Knowles 7). Luxury goods normally have â€Å"high income elasticity of demand† (Freepaper.com) as individual become rich; they increasingly buy luxury goods, which imply that decrease in income will result to decline in demand. â€Å"Income elasticity of demand† contrast with income, plus its signal changes at diverging income levels but to be precise, the luxury good may turn out to be normal good or inferior good at varying income levels (Freepaper.com). For the firm to charge a higher price to the consumers it must c arry out price discrimination, which is the purchase or sale of varying units of service or goods at price discrepancies indirectly matching to variances in cost of supply (Armstrong 14). The question whether price discrimination is an ethical issue is a subject which when seeking the answer, one must comprehend the reasons why firms find this particular practice acceptable, whilst amongst the consumers it is perceived to be unfair. In modern business world cultural division amongst those who recognize price discrimination to be acceptable and just way of conducting business, plus those who differ. However, Christians may be traced on the two sides of the division, where indifference does not play part. Price discrimination is recognised as ethical when efficiency is a matter of concern, plus fairness or justice does not matter (Chen 11).Advertising Looking for research paper on transportation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Discussion Price discrimination Price discrimination can be found on a company’s ability to differentiate amongst its buyers, according to their demand characteristic differences for specific products. The price discrimination becomes perfect if the company is capable of discriminating more (Armstrong 14). In economics, for price discrimination to exist, three conditions should prevail in order for the company to be able to profit from price discrimination: the company should have the marketplace power, the company should be able to differentiate amongst buyers according to their demand-linked characteristics plus it must be capable of restricting the resale between customers with low and high demand elasticity (Econpage.com). The company can charge each buyer (a or b) differently based on their demand of elasticity or either split the buyers into submarkets, with every submarket having its demand curve and autonomously maximize gains in every submarket (c) (Econpage.com). S ource: (Econpage.com) Three major classes of price discrimination exist; one is the personal discrimination where prices are charged to consumers based on the differences amongst individual buyers, while the second is group discrimination which applies inter-group variances plus product discrimination which charges product in a discriminating way. A luxury good will normally use the product discrimination, where the product is priced high based on its quality which enables the firm to attain a huge mark-up with high quality product compared to low quality goods (Econpage.com).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Market Trends of Luxury Cars specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Economists merely considered price discrimination as proof of monopoly practice, thus an indication of failure of the market. Monopolists may utilise price discrimination just to increase their earnings, or utilize it as entry barrier to new entrants in the market. Any method basically makes all things bad. The only occasions to make discrimination, are few instances which ensure goods ease of access that the marketplace will never support in any situation (Econpage.com). The degree of price discrimination reduces as new entrants in the sector increases, thus price discrimination may also apply in an oligopoly market structure, which is mainly subjected to few manufacturers, each having a certain market control (Armstrong 15). Price discrimination splits the link between costs and prices, where prices must be linked to costs since price mirror costs on relative scarcities of commodities (Chen 12). Therefore, prices cannot be depended on as indicator of shortage to the clients on where they must cut down. However, the majority of price-sensitive consumers in discrimination may come across an incremental-cost charge, whilst others might not. The sellers utilize price discrimination to increase earnings above the compe tition level and the high earnings ordinarily play the function of drawing new entrants in the sector; in case barriers exist no new entrants will follow. These barriers may include price discrimination, higher fixed costs and patents. In case higher earnings do not draw new entrants, then normally there is no social function and may merely be alleged as unfair, this is an indication of monopoly power (Econpage.com). Price discrimination can be used to support requirement of higher fixed cost goods that may not be offered by the marketplace and may be accepted as fair in specific situations. For instance, luxury goods such as cars may appeal based on the fact that discrimination is practiced according to the product quality or model. Poor individual will actually get a break in this type of practice, as the product discrimination is progressive in the allocation effect (Econpage.com). It also account for the common opinion that individual will purchase the luxury car when they have more income or has income increases, thus high prices will discourage individual from buying such cars. In case the high prices for wealthier discourages the most economical amongst them from purchasing the luxury car, the price system may be said to be inefficient (Chen 13). On the other hand, all transactions or trades are just or fair only if they deliberate on either side, to be precise, so long as no bodily coercion was engaged to compel either party to engage in trade (Tiemstra 11).Advertising Looking for research paper on transportation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A consummated transaction implies that the parties recognize themselves to be at an advantage after trading than if they had not traded at all. This therefore, makes the trade just despite how unequally the earnings from the transaction are divided amongst the parties, and notwithstanding how unevenly it may deal with equals (Tiemstra 11). Conclusion The justice assumes that even must be treated evenly. Besides, unrestrained justice would propose that the suitable reward for a manufacturer of products is recouping the production costs, with the opportunity cost of investment and time taken in that business. In such a case earnings will be allocated equally between seller and buyer, and no party will exercise uneven power over the other, resulting to efficient allocation of resources. For that reason, price discrimination must be alleged to be off beam, plus prices must mirror production costs. Particularly, it’s unethical for businesspersons to utilise their power in market t o extort from consumers the bulkiness of value they gain from consumption of the product. Work Cited Armstrong, M. â€Å"Price discrimination†, 2006. Web. Chen, Y. â€Å"Oligopoly price discrimination by purchase history†, 2005. Web. Econpage.com. â€Å"Price discrimination: A summary†, 2009. Web. Freepaper.com. â€Å"Arctic Monkeys Luxury car Market Trends†, 2011. Web. Knowles, M. â€Å"Luxury news: Market Trends†, 2008. Web. Tiemstra, J. â€Å"Price discrimination and fairness†, 2011. Web. This research paper on Market Trends of Luxury Cars was written and submitted by user Charlie Holder to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Nothosaurus - Facts and Figures

Nothosaurus - Facts and Figures Name: Nothosaurus (Greek for false lizard); pronounced NO-tho-SORE-us Habitat: Oceans worldwide Historical Period: Triassic (250-200 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 10 feet long and 150-200 pounds Diet: Fish and crustaceans Distinguishing Characteristics: Long, tapered body; narrow head with numerous teeth; semi-aquatic lifestyle About Nothosaurus With its webbed front and back feet, flexible knees and ankles, and long neck and tapered bodynot to mention its numerous teethNothosaurus was a formidable marine reptile that prospered across the nearly 50 million years of the Triassic period. Because it bears a superficial resemblance to modern seals, paleontologists speculate that Nothosaurus may have spent at least some of its time on land; its clear that this vertebrate breathed air, as evidenced by the two nostrils on the top end of its snout, and although it was undoubtedly a sleek swimmer, it wasnt as well adapted to a full-time aquatic lifestyle as later pliosaurs and plesiosaurs like Cryptoclidus and Elasmosaurus. (Nothosaurus is the best known of the family of marine reptiles known as nothosaurs; another well-attested genus is Lariosaurus.) Although its not widely known to the general public, Nothosaurus is one of the most important marine reptiles in the fossil record. There are over a dozen named species of this deep-sea predator, ranging from the type species (N. mirabilis, erected in 1834) to N. zhangi, erected in 2014, and it apparently had a worldwide distribution during the Triassic period, with fossil specimens discovered as far afield as western Europe, northern Africa and eastern Asia. There is also speculation that Nothosaurus, or a closely related genus of nothosaur, was the distant ancestor of the giant plesiosaurs Liopleurodon and Cryptoclidus, which were an order of magnitude bigger and more dangerous!

HCM337-0704B-01 Current Legal, Ethical, and Regulatory Issues in H - Essay - 1

HCM337-0704B-01 Current Legal, Ethical, and Regulatory Issues in H - Phase 1 Discussion Board 2 - Essay Example This paper describes the different laws and regulation concerning treatment and handle of patient’s medical records. There are various agencies, regulation and laws from the governmental and private sector that protect the integrity and privacy of medical records. The HIPPA regulation is a statute that protects the medical information of patients. HIPPA establishes a minimum standard for care of medical information which requires covered entities to evaluate their practices and enhance safeguards as needed in hospital settings to limit unnecessary or inappropriate access to and disclosure of protected health information (Hss, 2003). An organization that protects and regulates the handle of medical records of patients is AHIMA. The AHIMA is non-profit organization founded in 1928 dedicated to helping protect the health care information of people by provided professionals in the field with guidelines on how to realize the critical function of protecting medical record information (Myphr, 2007). Health care facilities provide patients with a document called the Noticy of Privacy Practice. This document tells the patient in how the medical record information of the patient will be utilized by the health care facility (Myphr, 2007). Patient’s right to have access to their medical records is protected by the Access to Medical Reports Act of 1988 (AMRA). The AMRA gives the right to the patient of obtaining their medical record for employment and insurance purposes. The person applying for the medical record must signed off a consent form before the information is released according to AMRA (Legalandgeneral, 2007). The Civil Rights and Liberty Union is an organization that is a supporter of medical rights privacy. The organization is a supporter, protector and representative voice of citizens which fight on a political level in congress to protect the privacy of medical records of US citizens

Environmental Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Environmental Science - Essay Example 2. The earth’s surface is formed of plates constituting both continental and oceanic lithosphere called tectonic plates. These plates are in a constant state of motion, causing tremendous build up of energy. The plates sometimes slip under one another and at other times collide with one another. Collision releases vast amounts of this energy up the rocks causing earthquakes. When tectonic plates diverge or converge, volcanoes are formed. 3. Mining and mineral processing activities generally pollute both surface and ground water of the region, creates noise and dust pollution, alters the land use pattern, wildlife populations and natural vegetation of the region. There is a negative impact on the health of communities living close to mining areas. 4. Governments are certainly not going to stop nuclear power research and nuclear power programmes because we ask the question, â€Å"can we dispose off nuclear waste?† Nuclear waste would be generated, so we now have to see how best to dispose off the waste. Yucca Mountains has been selected as the site for a safe repository of nuclear waste based on safety evaluations of the geological, hydrological and geochemical environment including such factors like thickness of overlying rocks and soil, depth of ground water, location of faults, characteristics of rocks that will hold the repository, depth at which the waste would be stored. The material that will be used for packaging the waste and how the waste would be transported to site have all been described in detail. Based on all available information and reports, Yucca seems to be a site suitable for long-term disposal of nuclear waste 5. Earthquakes generally result in large scale loss of life and property. It could trigger landslides, cause tsunamis, damage to dams or large water holding bodies could cause floods, liquefaction could cause buildings and structures to collapse, broken gas lines could cause massive

Benefits of Parent Education Programmes

Benefits of Parent Education Programmes Chen Yishu Why parent education program? Persuasive goal: Adoption: I want the audience to think about taking parent education program before they become parents. Specific proposition: Policy: Parents should take parental courses before they have children. Taking parental courses can benefit not only parents but also children. Audience’s current opinion: Neutral: Some people think parents should take parental courses while some don’t think so. Introduction: (example 1, pathos and ethos) When talking about children, what do you commonly think of? Well, if you asked me half a year ago, I would throw out various adjectives like cute, energetic, enthusiastic, and so on. However, now I’ve changed. Last summer vacation, one of my cousins came to visit my family, together with her two-year-old son, my nephew. He is a pretty boy with extraordinary big eyes and long black eyelashes, and when he stared at you wishfully, you will never wish to reject any of his wishes. Even though people always say we shouldn’t judge by appearance, I couldn’t help holding him up and kissed him as soon as I saw him. At that time, he was the loveliest creature in the world until we went to take a nap. I had no idea that he didn’t feel asleep at all and got up secretly after my parents and my cousin went shopping. In just two hours, he broke into my study room and destroyed all my collection of Japanese animation figures. He tore down their heads, dismembered them, and then threw them away. The moment when I found him, he was surrounded by corpses, with my favorite comic book in his hand. He cocked his head and just smiled at me, like an angel proclaiming the end of the world. I was so shocked that I couldn’t even speak a word. But the worse thing happened when his mother, my cousin, arrived at home. The only comment she made after hearing the disaster had only four words: â€Å"Oh, you naughty boy.† She didn’t say sorry, not even express that emotion. When I asked her to compensate for the damage, she was even more astonished than me: â€Å"They are just toys! How can you be so stingy?!† I wanted to argue more but my parents wouldn’t let me do so. She walked away easily. It’s impossible for me to say that I don’t blame my nephew for what he did, but I did attribute his naughtiness to his mother for she lacked the ability and awareness to educate her chil d. Preview statement: Today I like to speak about the necessity for parents, especially parents with their first child, to receive parent education as well as the reasons for taking such courses. To illustrate the points, I’m going to divide the issue into two parts: first, what is parent education; second, why should parents take parent education. Transition: If you look around in your life in China, perhaps you will notice that many of our next generation are actually raised by their grandparents instead of their parents. Certainly one of the reasons is because they have no time to take care of them, but the deficiency of parenting knowledge and skill also has something to do with the situation. In China, parent education is a brand-new concept that worth our attention for the well-being of our offspring. Main Point 1: (logos) Parent education programs contain mainly three categories. Sub-point 1: (evidence 12, ethos) The authors of the academic paper Facilitators and Barriers to Engagement in Parenting Programs: A Qualitative Systematic Review point out in the article that â€Å"Parenting programs are short-term interventions to promote changes in the behavior of parents that result in improved relationships with their children and changes in child behavior† (Julie Mytton, Jenny Ingram, Sarah Manns, James Thomas 127-137) and aim at â€Å"activat[ing] the strengths, competence, and possibilities for change that exist in parents and in the social context,† according to Professor Ching-Man Lam from Chinese University of Hong Kong, in order to enable parents to take good care of their children (Lam 147-168). Sub-point 2: Roughly, there are three types of parent education program as the child grows. Programs that get parents prepared for the new birth. Programs that aim at parents with toddlers and young children Programs that cover common issue with teenagers. Transition: Honestly speaking, it is very hard to divide the types of parent education program for each couple has different demand and as a result, hundreds of thousands of parent education programs that focus on different aspect of parenting exist in the market. Whereas, the influence of parent education program is relatively easier to categorize. Main Point 2: (logos) Parents play a vital role in children’s development. Sub-point 1: When searching online, numerous articles and research papers that emphasize the influences of parents on their children from personality to lifelong goals can be found. (evidence 3, ethos) For example, in the article The Role of Parents in Childrens Psychological Development, Jerome Kagan, an American psychologist, stated that â€Å"The profile of cognitive abilities, beliefs†¦ that characterizes each child†¦ is the result of diverse influences operating in complex ways†¦ the most important determinants of the different profiles include parental practices and personality† (Kagan 164-67). (evidence 4, ethos) At the same time, a newly published article Parents influence suicidal children in the journal The Australian, pointed out that â€Å"PARENTS are more likely than school bullies to influence childrens suicide attempts† (Bita n.pag.). Sub-point 2: Therefore, since parents play a vital role in the quality of children’s development, parent education is needed urgently to help shape the well-being of parents in order to support the growth of children. Otherwise, children may experience severe problems as they grow because their parents don’t know how to take good charge of them. (example 2, pathos)One vivid example is my nephew, the two-year-old boy. He is my cousin’s first child and honestly speaking, she knew nothing about how to take care of him, even though admittedly she loves him very much. She went back to work in Changsha after labor while my nephew was left with his grandparents in a tiny village simply because she didn’t want to sacrifice her spare time to take care of him. She promised to visit once a week, stayed for one day and left again. As a consequence, they weren’t very intimate until my cousin changed her attitude suddenly and took him back when he was one year ol d. Then he was spoiled. My cousin, his mother, gave everything he wanted and praised everything he did. No one could blame his mistakes for he did no wrong in his mother’s eyes. Finally a child with severe behavior problems, or a little evil, was created. Transition: I believe every one of us has encountered some wild kids in our lives, and mostly, their parents are especially guilty. Therefore, since parents have a great impact on children’s development, it is critical for parents to attend parent education and therefore, gain the knowledge and skills to ensure their children’s well-being. Main Point 3: (logos) Parent education programs can benefit children. Sub-point 1: Parent education programs are very likely to improve the health of children. When we look around, we may find that many young parents don’t know how to take good care of children and have to rely on their own parents, especially when it comes to infants. (evidence 5, ethos) In the research paper Preventing Abusive Head Trauma Among Infants and Young Children: A Hospital-Based, Parent Education Program, the author indicated that â€Å"Abusive head injuries among infants (shaken infant or shaken impact syndrome) represent a devastating form of child abuse† while â€Å"25 to 50% of people have not received information about this problem.† What’s worse, â€Å"in some cases of abuse, the perpetrators admitted to shaking the infant violently but confessed that they were unaware of the dangers of doing so.† Then the authors evaluated the effectiveness of parent education program on reducing the injuries and found out that â€Å"a coordinated, hospital-based, parent education program, targeting parents of all newborn infants, can reduce significantly the incidence of abusive head injuries among infants and children Sub-point 2: (evidence 6, ethos) Jane Barlow, a journalist from Oxford University, pointed out in an academic paper that Parent education program can improve the mental health of children and reduce the amount of children’s behavior problems (Jane Barlow, S. Stewart-Brown 356-370). Transition: Besides doing good to children, parent education program can also help parents out of their struggles. Main Point 4: (logos) Parent education programs can benefit parents. Sub-point 1: It is conceivable that parent education programs can help parents understand their influence on kids’ behaviors and the importance to control their emotions and actions. (example 3, pathos) For instance, one of my mother’s colleagues often complained that her son got angry and irritable easily and frequently as long as there was anything unsatisfied. She tried every method and none of them worked. She finally went to a famous parent educator and counselor for help and found out that it was herself who became angry uncontrollably when troubles occurred and her son was just imitating her. She was recommended to attend a anger management class along with parent education courses where she learned that the uncontrollable eruption of anger may get in the way of parenting her children in a good way. Since then, she worked hard to control her temper and gradually, she also made influence on her son and he changed marvelously. Sub-point 2: Parent education programs can improved mental health and well-being of parents, more specifically, it can help ease parent’s stress when facing difficulties at every stage as their children grow, for example, Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs). (evidence 7, ethos) In a research paper A Parent Education Program for Parents of Chinese American Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs): A Pilot Study, professor Hsu-Min Chiang from Columbia University pointed out that â€Å"parenting stress of parents of children with ASDs could be decreased through a short-term group parent education program† while â€Å"parental confidence in parents of children with ASDs can be improved through the parent education program using a group format.† Besides, the study also found that the parent education program â€Å"result[ed] in significant improvements in the physical health and environment domains† (Chiang 88-94). Transition: However, it is universally acknowledge that every coin has two sides and everything has its benefits and consequences. Therefore, even though parent education program has many advantages, they aren’t exceptions. Problems exist when people begin doing researches on the effectiveness of many programs and the results make them cast doubt. Main Point 5: Counterargument Sub-point 1: (evidence 8, ethos) Unfortunately, many people tend to believe that parents who attend parent education program are inadequate parent, sometimes even carers think so. Consequently, in order to avoid feeling guilty or stigmatized, parents are less likely to join the program, showed in the article Technique Is Not Enough: A framework for ensuring that evidence-based parenting programmes are socially inclusive (Barrett, 9). Sub-point 2: However ironically, the vast majority of the parents who don’t take parent education program are very likely to be the ones who really need to improve their parenting skills, the study showed later. (Barrett, 9). The text also points out that to change their attitudes, government should â€Å"empower local voices by implementing new programmes in co-production with local program service user parents so they become culturally congruent† (Barrett 10). Transition: It is undeniable that the development of parent education program still has to overcome numerous difficulties and problems however, by conducting further research, things will be better. Summary Statement: In my opinion, due to the influence parents have on their children’s development and the numerous advantages of parent education can bring to both parents and children, it is necessary for young parents to take the course. Besides, improvement still need to be done to increase the effectiveness of the programs. Conclusion: Briefly speaking, based on the arguments offered above, we as grown up who are very likely to have our own children within 10 years, should think about taking parent education program before becoming truly parents. Works Cited Barlow, Jane, and S. Stewart-Brown. Behavior Problems and Group-based Parent Education Programs.JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS No.21 (2000): 356-70. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11064964?dopt=Abstract>. Bita, Natasha. Parents Influence Suicidal Children. The Australian 29 Nov. 2014, Australian3 ed., THENATION sec.: 11. Print. Chiang, Hsu-Min. A Parent Education Program for Parents of Chinese American Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs): A Pilot Study.Hammill Institute on Disabilities Vol. 29. No. 2, (2014): 88 –94. Hammill Institute on Disabilities. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. http://foa.sagepub.com/content/29/2/88.full.pdf html>. Davis, Fabian A., Lynn McDonald, and Nick Axford. Introduction. Technique Is Not Enough: A Framework for Ensuring That Evidence-based Parenting Programmes Are Socially Inclusive. Leicester, England: British Psychological Society, 2012. 9. Print. Dias, Mark S., Kim Smith, Kathy DeGuehery, R Paula Mazur, Veetai Li, and Michele L. Shaffer. Preventing Abusive Head Trauma Among Infants and Young Children: A Hospital-Based, Parent Education Program.PEDIATRICSVol. 115. No. 4 (2005): Pp. E470-E477.PEDIATRICS. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/115/4/e470.full?sid=7ea8cd19-674c-4b9c-9ebe-9dc4d0d048de>. Kagan, Jerome. The Role of Parents in Childrens Psychological Development. PEDIATRICS Vol. 104. No. Supplement 1 July 1, 1999 Pp. (1999): 164-67. PEDIATRICS. 1 Jul. 1999. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/104/Supplement_1/164.full.htmlà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾. Lam, Ching-Man. Parent Education: Revision and Vision.Asian Journal of Counselling Vol. 10. No. 2, (2003): 147–168. The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. . Mytton, Julie, Jenny Ingram, Sarah Manns, and James Thomas. Facilitators and Barriers to Engagement in Parenting Programs A Qualitative Systematic Review.Health Education BehaviorVol.41. No. 2 (2013): 127-37.SAGE Journals. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. http://heb.sagepub.com/content/41/2/127.full.pdf html>.

Air Pollution from World War Ii Production

Air pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Air pollution from World War II production Smog over Santiago, Chile Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. [1] Contents[hide] * 1 Pollutants * 2 Sources * 2. 1 Emission factors * 3 Indoor air quality (IAQ) * 4 Health effects * 4. 1 Effects on cystic fibrosis * 4. 2 Effects on COPD * 4. Effects on children * 4. 4 Heal th effects in relatively â€Å"clean† areas * 5 Reduction efforts * 5. 1 Control devices * 6 Legal regulations * 7 Cities * 8 Carbon dioxide emissions * 9 Atmospheric dispersion * 10 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants * 11 See also * 12 References * 13 External links| [edit] Pollutants Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made. [2] Pollutants can be classified as either pri mary or secondary.Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone  Ã¢â‚¬â€ one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: * Sulfur oxides (SOx) – especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. 2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. * Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants. * Carbon monoxide – is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas.It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of car bon monoxide. * Carbon dioxide (CO2) – a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere. * Volatile organic compounds – VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are lso significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. * Particulate matter – Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matt er (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas.In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere.Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer. * Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease. [4][5] * Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. * Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. * Ammonia (NH3) – emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. * Odors  Ã¢â‚¬â€ such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes * Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon. Secondary pollutants include: Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word â€Å"smog† is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs. Minor air pollutants include: * A la rge number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. * A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. [edit] Sources Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants n the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel * â€Å"Stationary Sources† include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices * â€Å"Mobile Sources† include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc. * Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. * Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol spra ys and other solvents * Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air.Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19. 5% by displacement * Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry Natural sources * Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation. * Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle. * Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium.It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, aft er cigarette smoking. * Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. * Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates. [edit] Emission factors Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant.These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e. g. , kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air p ollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources. 6] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency. [7][8][9][10][11] [edit] Indoor air quality (IAQ) Main article: Indoor air quality A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry.Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. [12] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights.Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures.Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different typ es of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)[dead link], these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates.Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these ai rborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. edit] Health effects The World Health Organization states that 2. 4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1. 5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution. [13] â€Å"Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . . â€Å"[14] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. 15] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. [citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. [citation needed] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. [citation needed] The US EPA estimates that a pro posed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer espiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States. [citation needed] The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. [16] Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc. , U. S. A. , killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. [citation need ed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured. [17] The health effects caused by air pollutants may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions.These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. citation needed] A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that mo re than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year. 18] Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. [19][20] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. [edit] Effects on cystic fibrosis Main article: Cystic fibrosisA study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near and around particulate matter air pollution had a n increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function. [21] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency. clarification needed] During the time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function. 22] [edit] Effects on COPD Main article: Chronic obstructive pu lmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some forms of asthma. [23] A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59.Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences. [24] It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards b ecome more apparent.Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. [25] [edit] Effects on children Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the â€Å"pea-soup† smog. 26] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans we re living in areas that did not meet at least one of the â€Å"criteria pollutants† laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. [27] Those pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. [edit] Health effects in relatively â€Å"clean† areas Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be substantial and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people can potentially breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2. 5 and ozone concentrations will produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010. 28] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidi ty) effects. [edit] Reduction efforts There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles). [edit] Control devices The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere. * Particulate control * Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones) * Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. * Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust). * * Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology.The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants. * Scrubbers * Baffle spray scrubber * Cyclonic spray scrubber * Ejector venturi scrubber * Mechanically aided scrubber * Spray tower * Wet scrubber * NOx control * Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) * Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) * NOx scrubbers * Exhaust gas recirculation * Catalytic converter (also for VOC control) * VOC abatement * Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon * Flares * Thermal oxidizers * Catalytic oxidizers * Biofilters * Absorption (scrubbing) * Cryogenic condensers * Vapor recovery systems * Acid Ga s/SO2 control * Wet scrubbers * Dry scrubbers * Flue gas desulfurization * Mercury control * Sorbent Injection Technology * Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel * Dioxin and furan control * Miscellaneous associated equipment * Source capturing systems * Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) [edit] Legal regulations Smog in Cairo In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U. S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels.The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants. [edit] Cities Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution. [edit] Carbon dioxide emissionsMost Polluted World Cities by PM[29]| Particulate matter, ?g/m? (2004)| City| 169| Cairo, Egypt| 150| Delhi, India| 128| Kolkata, India (Calcutta)| 125| Tianjin, China| 123| Chongqing, China| 109| Kanpur, India| 109| Lucknow, India| 104| Jakarta, Indonesia| 101| Shenyang, China| Total CO2 emissions Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Countries with the highest CO2 emissions| Country| Carbon dioxide emissions per year (106 Tons) (2006)| Percentage of global total| China| 6,103| 21. 5%| United States| 5,752| 20. 2%| Russia| 1,564| 5. 5%| India| 1,510| 5. %| Japan| 1293| 4. 6%| Germany| 805| 2. 8%| United Kingdom| 568| 2. 0%| Canada| 544| 1. 9%| South Korea| 475| 1. 7%| Italy| 474| 1. 7%| Per capita CO2 emissions[30] Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions| Country| Carbon dioxide emissions per year (Tons per person) (2006)| | Qatar| 56. 2| | United Arab Emirates| 32. 8| | Kuwait| 31. 2| | Bahrain| 28. 8| | Trinidad and Tobago| 25. 3| | Luxembourg| 24. 5| | Netherlands Antilles| 22. 8| | Aruba| 22. 3| | United States| 19| | Australia| 18. | | [edit] Atmospheric dispersion Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models for predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are: * Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources. * Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling * Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms * Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smogVisualization of a buoyant Gaus sian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of atmospheric turbulence). [31][32] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U. S. Department of Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were activ e in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. roup in Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.